Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
1-31
Temporomandibular joint
disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
Trastornos de la articulación
temporomandibular y su relación con posturas
craneocervicales
Mishel Denisse Orlando Santana 1 , Karol Leonor Chávez González 2 , Alicia Margoth Unda Vernelle 3 ,
Luis Eduardo Santaella Palma 4 , Mildreth Gregoria Cercado Rosado 5
1 Salesian Polytechnic University; morlando@ups.edu.ec , Guayaquil, Ecuador.
2 Salesian Polytechnic University; kchavezg@ups.edu.ec , Guayaquil, Ecuador.
3 Salesian Polytechnic University; aunda@ups.edu.ec , Guayaquil, Ecuador.
4 Salesian Polytechnic University; lsantaella@ups.edu.ec , Guayaquil, Ecuador.
5 Salesian Polytechnic University; mcercado@ups.edu.ec, Guayaquil, Ecuador.
How to cite:
Orlando Santana, M.D., Chávez González, K.L., Unda Vernelle, A.M., Santaella Palma, L.E., & Cercado Rosado,
M.G. (2025). Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with craniocervical posture.
MultidisciplinariaInvestigación Contemporánea, 3(2), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
Article Information
Received: 03-12-2024
Accepted: 07-01-2025
Published: 01-07-2025
Editor’s Note
REDLIC remains neutral regarding jurisdictional
claims in published messages and institutional
afliations.
Editorial
Latin American Editorial Network for
Contemporary Research (REDLIC)
www.editorialredlic.com
Funding Sources
The research was conducted using the authors’
own resources.
Conicts of Interest
No conicts of interest are declared.
This text is protected by a Creative Commons 4.0.
You are free to Share - copy and redistribute the material in any
medium or format - and Adapt the document - remix, transform, and
build upon the material - for any purpose, including commercial
purposes, provided you comply with the condition of:
Attribution: you must credit the original work appropriately, provide
a link to the license, and indicate if changes have been made.
You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in such a way
as to suggest that you are endorsed by or receive support from the
licensor for your use of the work.
Revista multidisciplinaria
Investigación Contemporánea 07 - 2025 Vol. 3 - No. 2 ISSN-e: 2960-8015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a90
Leucemia de células dendríticas plasmocitoides
- estudio y diagnóstico de un caso 49 -49
Copyright (c) 2025 Faicán Rocano Pedro Fernando, Dután Pérez Ibelice Salomé,
González González Camila Raquel, Matute Aguiar Joselyn Nayeli, Rodríguez Ver-
dugo Alejandra Valentina.
Este texto está protegido por una licencia Creative Commons 4.0.
Usted es libre para Compartir —copiar y redistribuir el material en cualquier medio
o formato — y Adaptar el documento —remezclar, transformar y crear a partir del
material— para cualquier propósito, incluso para nes comerciales, siempre que
cumpla la condición de:
Atribución: Usted debe dar crédito a la obra original de manera adecuada, propor-
cionar un enlace a la licencia, e indicar si se han realizado cambios. Puede hacerlo
en cualquier forma razonable, pero no de forma tal que sugiera que tiene el apoyo
del licenciante o lo recibe por el uso que hace de la obra.
Resumen de licencia - Texto completo de la licencia
Review article. Revista Multidisciplinaria Investigación Contemporánea.
Vol. 3 - No. 2, pp. 1 - 31. July-December, 2025. e-ISSN: 2960-8015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
Revista multidisciplinaria
Investigación Contemporánea 07 - 2025 Vol. 3 - No. 2 ISSN-e: 2960-8015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a90
Leucemia de células dendríticas plasmocitoides
- estudio y diagnóstico de un caso 32 -49
Artículo Caso clínico. Revista multidisciplinaria investigación Contemporánea.
Vol. 3 - No. 2, pp. 32 - 49. julio-diciembre, 2025. e-ISSN: 2960-8015
Leucemia de células dendríticas
plasmocitoides - estudio y diagnóstico
de un caso
Leucemia de células dendríticas plasmocitoides - estudio y
diagnóstico de un caso
Información del artículo:
Recibido: 05-12-2024
Aceptado: 21-02-2025
Publicado: 01-07-2025
Nota del editor:
REDLIC se mantiene neutral con respecto a
reclamos jurisdiccionales en mensajes publi-
cados y aliaciones institucionales.
Editorial:
Red Editorial Latinoamericana de Investigación
Contemporánea (REDLIC) www.editorialredlic.com
Fuentes de nanciamiento:
La investigación fue realizada con recursos propios.
Conictos de interés:
No presentan conicto de intereses.
Este texto está protegido por una licencia Creative Commons 4.0.
Usted es libre para Compartir —copiar y redistribuir el material en cual-
quier medio o formato— y Adaptar el documento —remezclar, transformar
y crear a partir del material— para cualquier propósito, incluso para nes
comerciales, siempre que cumpla la condición de:
Atribución: Usted debe dar crédito a la obra original de manera adecuada,
proporcionar un enlace a la licencia, e indicar si se han realizado cambios.
Puede hacerlo en cualquier forma razonable, pero no de forma tal que sugie-
ra que tiene el apoyo del licenciante o lo recibe por el uso que hace de la obra
1 Docente Investigador; pedro.faican@ucacue.edu.ec. Azogues, Ecuador.
2 Estudiante; ibelice.dutan.44@est.ucacue.edu.ec. Azogues, Ecuador.
3 Estudiante; camila.gonzalez.66@est.ucacue.edu.ec. Azogues, Ecuador.
4 Estudiante; joselyn.matute.44@est.ucacue.edu.ec. Azogues, Ecuador.
5 Estudiante; alejandra.rodriguez.60@est.ucacue.edu.ec. Azogues, Ecuador.
Faicán Rocano Pedro Fernando 1, Dután Pérez Ibelice Salomé 2, González González Camila
Raquel 3, Matute Aguiar Joselyn Nayeli 4, Rodríguez Verdugo Alejandra Valentina 5
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a90
Cómo citar:
Faican Rocano, P. . F., Dután Pérez, I. S. ., González González, C. R. ., Rodríguez Verdugo, A. V. ., & Matute Aguiar, J.
N. . (2025). Leucemia de células dendríticas plasmocitoides - estudio y diagnóstico de un caso.
Revista Multidisci-
plinaria Investigación Contemporánea
, 3(2), 32-49. https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a90
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
2-31
Abstract
Introduction: The temporomandibular joint is a bilateral synovial joint between
the mandibular condyle and the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone.
Objective: The objective of this research is to analyze the association between
temporomandibular joint disorders and alterations in craniocervical postures.
Methodology: A narrative review was carried out. Information collection was
applied to the following databases: Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, Google
Scholar, from August 2024 to November 2024. Conclusions: The posture in which
the head is located inuences the position of the cervical spine and an alteration in
this can cause problems in dental occlusion. Among the abnormal cervical postures,
the following postures stand out: kyphotic, lordotic, and attened. Craniocervical
dysfunction is an anomaly in which the head is positioned forward with respect
to the axial axis of the body and is usually associated with the appearance of
temporomandibular disorders.
Keywords: Dentistry, rehabilitation, health, epidemiology, disorders,
temporomandibular joint, craniocervical postures.
Resumen
Introducción: La articulación temporomandibular es una articulación sinovial
bilateral entre el cóndilo mandibular y la fosa mandibular del hueso temporal
Objetivo: El objetivo de esta investigación consiste en analizar la asociación entre
trastornos de la articulación temporomandibular y alteraciones de posturas
craneocervicales. Metodología: Se efectuó una revisión narrativa. La recolección
de la información se aplicó en las bases de datos: Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science,
Google académico, durante agosto de 2024 a noviembre de 2024. Conclusiones:
La postura en la que se encuentra la cabeza inuye en la posición de la columna
cervical y una alteración en esta puede causar problemas en la oclusión dental.
Entre las posturas cervicales anómalas, se destacan las posturas: cifótica, lordótica
y aplanada. La disfunción cráneo cervical es una anomalía en la que la cabeza
presenta una posición adelantada con respecto al eje axial del cuerpo y suele
asociarse con la aparición de trastornos temporomandibulares.
Palabras clave: Odontología, rehabilitación, salud, epidemiología, trastornos,
articulación temporomandibular, posturas craneocervicales.
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
3-31
1. Introduction
The cranial and facial structures including the oral cavity along with
its dental organs correspond to one of the most complex and complicated
areas of the body that contributes to a series of orofacial disorders including
temporomandibular disorders, orofacial pain disorders, myofascial, oral
injuries, dental disorders, among others. Temporomandibular disorders
being signicantly a public health problem, affecting approximately 31%
of the adult population, and orofacial pain among the most common of
these problems with related symptoms of temporomandibular joint
dysfunction and chronic head and neck pain, tension, migraine or mixed
type, with an estimated prevalence of 20% of the general population (1,2).
Temporomandibular disorders symptoms can be observed across a
wide age range, from 20 to 40 years, with women being more susceptible to
these disorders than men (1,2). Furthermore, these craniofacial structures
are closely related to feeding, communication, vision, and hearing,
impacting appearance, self-esteem, and personal expression, which in
turn can signicantly affect psychological and functional status. Abnormal
craniocervical postures can cause problems in the temporomandibular
joint and, consequently, altered dental occlusion (1,2,3). The objective of
this research is to analyze the association between temporomandibular
joint disorders and altered craniocervical postures.
Due to the high health impact and varied etiologies, the management
of these temporomandibular disorders tends to be approached from
different medical and dental perspectives. However, each specialist
addresses the functional problem according to their area of expertise.
Therefore, therapeutic management may be limited, and a comprehensive
approach requires a multidisciplinary team .
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
4-31
2. Methodology
A narrative review was conducted regarding temporomandibular
joint disorders and their relationship with craniocervical postures. The
search strategy considered criteria such as relevance and origin of data,
objective content development, and scope of the research. Based on these
parameters, 22 publications were selected, including literature review
articles, original articles, textbooks, and clinical cases related to the
object of study, published in the last two decades, in English and Spanish.
Data collection was performed using the following databases: SCOPUS,
PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The study was conducted
from August 2024 to December 2024.
3. Development
3.1. Anatomy of the temporomandibular joint
The temporomandibular joint is a bilateral synovial joint between
the mandibular condyle and the mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone, its complex anatomy is characterized by highly incongruent
skeletal surfaces which are therefore separated by a brocartilaginous
disc into two independent chambers: the superior temporodiscal space
and the inferior condylar disc space respectively. This division aims to
provide joint stability by enlarging the contact area and provides the
temporomandibular joint with dynamic and kinematic behavior, allowing
jaw movements with 6 degrees of freedom under the heaviest load on the
body’s joints ranging from 50 to 80 kilopascals (kPa) (2).
The disc is morphologically biconcave with thick anterior and
posterior bands and a thin intermediate zone. Anteriorly, the superior
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
5-31
belly of the lateral pterygoid muscle inserts into the disc. The inferior belly
has variable insertions, including the condyle, the joint capsule, and the
disc. Posteriorly, it has a bilaminar zone of connective tissue that joins the
temporal bone to the disc. The temporomandibular, sphenomandibular,
and stylomandibular ligaments support the temporomandibular joint.
The temporomandibular joint is one of the most complex joints in the
human body. It behaves as a ginglymoarthroidal joint, which allows both
rotational and translational movement of the mandibular condyle on the
axis of the glenoid cavity, like a “hinge and glide” joint, with the purpose of
maximizing oral opening (3).
3.2. Functions of the temporomandibular joint
Normal temporomandibular joint function requires synchronized
and coordinated movement of the disk, condylar head, and masticatory
muscles. The mandibular condyle normally aligns with the temporal
fossa and posterior band of the disk at the 11 or 12 o’clock position. With
mandibular opening, the condyle translates anteriorly to align with the
articular eminence. The disk moves with the condyle, with the intermediate
zone aligned with the eminence. A pathological intra-articular disk may
obstruct these ranges of motion (3,4).
3.3. Constitution of the craniocervicalmandibular system
The craniocervical mandibular system is made up of articular and
bony structures. (5) Among the articular structures are the cervical spine,
which allows mobility of both the neck and the head. This part has 7
vertebrae; C1 and C2 form the upper cervical spine, and from C3 to C7 is
the lower cervical spine. The tongue is a muscular organ that interacts
with the articular and bony structures, helps coordinate the movements
of the lower jaw, and has direct contact with the teeth (6).
The parts that make up the bone structure are the skull complex
which has the function of protecting the brain, serves as support for
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
6-31
the facial structure, includes cranial cap, skull base, facial bones, joints,
and paranasal sinus (7). Another element is the lower jaw or mandible,
which is the bone located in the lower part of the face, articulates with the
temporal bone of the skull and facilitates the movements of the mouth, its
oral functions are speech and facial functions are chewing and nally the
hyoid bone which is U-shaped, located in the upper part of the larynx and
in the lower part of the jaw. It is suspended by muscles and ligaments that
contribute to the complex movements of mastication and speech (8).
Cervical joint problems can cause stress on the capsular elements
and ligaments, which work together to provide support and stability to the
structures involved. This can lead to headaches, neck pain, atlantoaxial
subluxations (C1 and C2), and also generate neurological problems (9).
3.4. Craniocervical joints and cervical vertebrae
The craniocervical joints are linked to the spine because it maintains
a connection with the cervical vertebrae that form the cervical spine in
the neck. C1-C2 and C7 are atypical vertebrae because they do not have
common characteristics and from C3 to C6 are typical because it does
have them (10). In this region is the atlanto-occipital joint located between
the occipital bone of the skull and C1 (Atlas) which is the rst cervical
vertebra, whose shape is like a ring. Its primary function is to execute
exion movements and head movements such as tilting. Another joint is
the atlanto-axial because it is between the rst vertebra C1 and the second
vertebra C2 which is shaped like a tooth helps rotate the head (11).
The C7 is a prominent vertebra with the longest and most spinous
process relative to the other vertebrae. Therefore, it provides more
support and helps distribute weight to both the neck and head. It is also
more visible because it is the bone located at the back of the neck. The C3-
C6 vertebrae are smaller vertebrae with shorter spinous processes (10).
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
7-31
3.5. Usefulness of imaging studies in TMJ disorders
The primary method for diagnosing temporomandibular joint
disorders is a clinical examination, supported by extensive imaging
analysis using radiographs, non-stress MRI or CT, and functional testing.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been widely used to assess
temporomandibular joint characteristics such as disc morphology, disc
position, and joint effusion. Although not considered the gold standard
for bone evaluation of the temporomandibular joint, this modality has
been used for these purposes; however, it is recommended to correlate
bone diagnosis with CT (4).
Finding correlations between structural changes of the
temporomandibular joint and clinical features can help guide patient
management and provide prognostic information. Rudisch in 2001
showed that temporomandibular joint pain has been correlated with
several MRI ndings including: internal derangements, degenerative
condylar changes, joint effusion, and medullary edema. Currently, Sang in
2024 limits MRI as a diagnostic aid in patients who primarily suffer from
masticatory muscle pain (myalgia), as no relevant results were obtained
in studies (1).
3.6. TMJ disorders
Temporomandibular joint disorder (TMJD) is a term used to
describe musculoskeletal disorders of the jaw system, comprising the
temporomandibular joints and their associated musculature. Pathological
changes can affect all joint tissues, including the articular cartilage, disc,
subchondral bone, and synovial membrane. Degenerative changes are
often considered the result of mechanical impairment (2).
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
8-31
3.7. Temporomandibular joint disorders.
Below are a number of disorders that can affect the
temporomandibular joint (2):
1 Joint pain
a. Arthralgias
b. Arthritis
2 Joint disorders
a. Disc disorders
i. Disc displacement with reduction
ii. Disc shifting with intermittent locking reduction
iii. Disc displacement without reduction with limited
opening
iv. Disc displacement without reduction without limited
opening
b. Hypomobility disorders other than disc disorders
i. Adhesions and adhesions
ii. Ankylosis
1. Fibrous
2. I mean
c. Hypermobility disorders
i. Dislocations
1. Subluxation
2. Dislocation
3. Joint diseases
a. Degenerative joint disease
i. Osteoarthritis
ii. Osteoarthritis
b. Osteochondritis dissecans
c. Osteonecrosis
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
9-31
d. Neoplasia
e. Synovial chondromatosis
4. Fractures
5. Developmental / congenital disorders
a. Aplasia
b. Hypoplasia
c. Hyperplasia
Masticatory muscle disorders
1. Muscle pain
a. Myalgia
i. Local myalgia
ii. Myofascial pain
iii. Referred myofascial pain
b. Tendinitis
c.Myositis
d. Spasm
2. Contracture
3. Hypertrophy
4. Neoplasia
5. Mobility disorders
a. Orofacial dyskinesia
b. Oromandibular dystonia
6. Masticatory muscle pain attributed to systemic/central pain
disorder
a. Fibromyalgia/generalized pain
Headache
1. Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorders
Associated structures
1.. Coronoid hyperplasia (2).
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
10-31
3.7.1 . Arthralgia
Pain of temporomandibular joint origin on palpation or that is
affected by movement, function or parafunction of the jaw (2,3).
3.7.2. Rheumatoid Arthritis
Inammatory autoimmune disease, symptoms include pain of joint
origin with characteristics of inammation or infection over the affected
joint: edema, erythema, associated symptoms occlusal changes. Magnetic
resonance imaging is the most accurate modality (95%) for diagnosis,
with destruction of the articular disc and bilaminar zone, resulting in an
abnormal position of the disc with decreased biconcave morphology, this
proliferation of synovial widening suggests data of rheumatoid arthritis
and is the precursor of bone changes (3).
3.7.3. Internal disorders.
Internal derangement is dened as an abnormal anatomical
relationship of the articular disc to the mandibular condyle, articular
eminence, and glenoid fossa. It accounts for 70% of temporomandibular
joint symptoms, and is more common in women between their second and
fourth decades of life. Trauma, malocclusion, bruxism, stress, and primary
bone abnormalities are known causes. Early in the disease, patients may
present with discomfort, pain, abnormal range of motion, and clicking
sounds during mouth opening and closing. Chronically, patients may
complain of pain and decreased range of motion, symptoms commonly
confused with myofascial pain syndrome, the latter being a stress-
related disorder involving extracapsular masticatory muscles, while
temporomandibular joint syndrome refers to an abnormality or disorder
involving the joint itself (3).
3.7.4. Disc displacement with reduction.
Intracapsular biomechanical disorder involving the condyle-disc
complex. In the closed mouth position, the disc is anterior to the condyle
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
11-31
and is reduced when the mouth is opened. Medial and lateral displacement
of the disc may be present, and clicking and popping sounds may occur
with disc reduction (2,3).
3.7.5. Disc displacement with intermittent locking reduction.
Closed mouth position, the disc is in the anterior position to the
condyle and is reduced to the oral opening, when this is not reduced, an
intermittent limited mandibular opening occurs, presenting clicking and
snapping noises (2,3).
3.7.6. Disc displacement without reduction with limited opening.
Closed mouth, the disc is positioned anterior to the condyle and the
disc does not reduce with oral opening, persistent limited mandibular
opening. Also known as “closed lock” (2,3).
3.7.7. Disc displacement without reduction without limited opening.
Mouth closed, the disc position anterior to the condyle and the
disc does not reduce with oral opening, it is not associated with limited
opening (2,3).
Wilkes in 1990, proposed a classication to adequately standardize
the pathology of internal disorders, the Wilkes classication divides
temporomandibular joint disorders into ve increasing stages of internal
disorders, with stages I and II referring to acute and chronic reductive
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
12-31
displacement of the disc, while stages III, IV and V refer to acute, subacute
and chronic non-reductive displacement of the disc, respectively. Stage V
mentions osteoarthritis (3,13,14).
Table 1. Wilkes classication of internal disorders of the temporomandibular
joint.
Stage I Early reduction of disc displacement, without pain or
limitation, early opening click.
Stage II Late reduction disc displacement, one or more episodes of
pain, mid-to-late opening click, and transient blocks.
Stage III Non-reducing disc displacement – acute/subacute, with
multiple painful episodes, blockage, restricted mobility.
Stage IV Non-reducing disc displacement - chronic, with increasing
functional disturbance.
Stage V Non-reducing disc displacement – chronic with osteoarthritis,
crepitus, scraping, pain symptoms, restricted movement,
limited function.
Fountain: Drawn from Pope (3), Dimitroulis (13) and Elledge (14).
Dimitroulis in 2013 proposed a new classication based on 5
increasing degrees of joint pathology (3, 13, 14).
Table 2. Dimitroulis classication of temporomandibular joint pathology.
Category Clinical presentation Image
1Arthralgia, joint pain
with limited oral opening
movement
Structurally normal joint
2Intermittent clicking
associated with intermittent
joint pain and locking
Disc displacement with
reduction
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
13-31
3 Chronic pain
Closed lock
Disc displacement without
reduction
Disc exhibits normal
contour
4Severe joint pain, limited
chewing function, reduced
mouth opening
Disc degeneration,
deformation and
perforation.
Early condylar changes.
5
Constant crepitus, mild to
moderate pain, reduced
masticatory function,
intermittent blockage
Degenerative joint disease,
end-stage disc and condyle
degeneration, destructive,
catastrophic.
Source: Prepared from Pope (3), Dimitroulis (13) and Elledge (14).
3.7.8. Adhesion and adhesions.
Restricted mandibular movement with deection towards the
affected side on opening, adhesions secondary to joint inammation,
adhesion in the upper or lower joint space characterized by intermittent
clicking (1,2).
3.7.9. Ankylosis.
Most common cause of trauma, less common cause of infections or
inadequate surgical treatment of the condylar area. Fibrous ankylosis,
no predominant bone changes, severe limited capacity for oral opening,
deviation towards the affected side. Bone ankylosis, radiographic evidence
of bone proliferation, with marked deviation to the affected side (1,2).
3.7.10. Condylar subluxation/hypermobility.
It represents a hypermobility disorder involving the condyle-disc
complex and articular eminence. When the mouth is opened, the condyle-
disc complex is placed anterior to the articular eminence, making it
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
14-31
impossible for mandibular closure. Condylar hypermobility is observed
in patients with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (1,2).
The duration of the dislocation may be momentary or prolonged,
when the patient can reduce the dislocation by himself it is called
subluxation, when the patient needs the assistance of the doctor to reduce
the dislocation and normalize mandibular movement it is known as
dislocation (1,2).
3.7.11. Degenerative joint disease.
Osteoarthritis, also known as degenerative joint disease, is the
clinical and pathological outcome of a number of disorders and conditions
characterized by joint deterioration with concomitant bony changes at
the condyle and/or articular eminence, leading to pain, disability, and
structural insufciency in synovial joints. Primary osteoarthritis can be
localized and generalized when three or more joint sites are involved, and
is distinguished from secondary osteoarthritis, which follows a clearly
dened predisposing disorder or disease (12).
Over the years, in addition to genetic background, mechanical and
psychological stress has been consistently linked to pain conditions and
impaired function associated with the temporomandibular joints and
masticatory muscles (12).
The development of all types of degenerative diseases of the
temporomandibular joint is associated with multiple etiological and risk
factors, among which we can mention: trauma, functional overload, age,
systemic diseases, hormonal factors (12).
Collagen genes are associated with different types of bone and
cartilage dysplasias where osteoarthritis is part of the more complex
phenotype. Physiologically, osteoarthritis as a disease involves the
production of cytokines by cartilage, synovium and bone. Cytokines
such as TNF (tumor necrosis factor), IL-1 and IL-6 are produced by
chondrocytes, macrophages, T cells and osteophytes in response to tissue
damage. Pro-MMPs (matrix metalloproteinase), released by synovites and
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
15-31
macrophages contribute to tissue damage, T cells and B cells are recruited
by the cytokine environment in the synovial uid and contribute to local
synovitis. Bone cells release several cytokines most notably IL-6 and
RANKL (receptor activator of nuclear factor ligand) (2).
3.7.12. Systemic arthritis.
Joint inammation resulting in painful symptoms or structural
changes caused by systemic diseases including: rheumatoid arthritis,
juvenile idiopathic arthritis, spondyloarthropathies (ankylosing
spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, infectious arthritis, Reiter’s syndrome),
gout, autoimmune diseases and other mixed connective tissue diseases
(scleroderma, Sjögren’s syndrome, lupus erythematosus). Condylar
resorption may be associated with malocclusion (12).
3.7.13 Osteochondritis dissecans.
Joint condition in which there are osteochondral fragments,
associated with pain, inammation, joint noises and limitation of
mandibular movements (3,12).
3.7.14. Osteonecrosis.
This symptomatic condition, also called avascular necrosis, may
involve the temporomandibular joint in patients with disc displacement
without destruction. Theoretically, the anterior disc compromises
extraosseous and venous blood ow to the condyle by compressing the
insertion of the lateral pterygoid muscle into the mandibular condyle.
Computed tomography images may show sclerosis of the subchondral
bone; magnetic resonance imaging shows decreased T1 and T2 signal (12).
3.7.15. Neoplasms, tumors and similar conditions.
Rare condition in the temporomandibular joint, dened as the
result of tissue proliferation involving the temporomandibular joint with
histological characteristics that may be benign (81%) or malignant, may
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
16-31
present inammation, pain during limited oral opening function, crepitus,
occlusal changes and sensory-motor changes, facial asymmetry (12).
Synovial chondromatosis is a benign neoplasm resulting from
intra-articular proliferation of cartilaginous nodules originating from the
synovial membrane, it is common in other joints, its symptoms involve
pain, swelling, crepitation and limited movement, diagnostic aids are
computed tomography and magnetic resonance imaging, ndings include
widening of the joint space, joint effusion, soft tissue edema, irregular
joint surfaces and multiple loose calcied bodies that resemble ossied
bodies on tomography as isodense signal, loose bodies are often found in
the superior joint space, causing destruction and sclerosis of the articular
eminence / glenoid fossa (12).
3.7.16 Traumatic conditions
Mandibular fractures occur most frequently in motor vehicle
accidents, condylar fractures represent between 25 and 50% of
mandibular fractures, and are classied for study into fractures of the
condylar head (extra or intracapsular) and condylar neck (high, middle
and low) resulting in most cases a malocclusion and altered function. The
fractured fragments are generally displaced medially by the action of the
lateral pterygoid muscle. Computed tomography and three-dimensional
reconstructions are useful for surgical planning and evaluation of adjacent
structures (12).
3.7.17, Condylar deciency Aplasia .
Condylar deciency includes complete or partial absence of the
condyle and incomplete development of the articular fossa and eminence
resulting in facial asymmetry., Common causes of aplasia include
rheumatoid arthritis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, radiation therapy
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
17-31
and parathyroid hormone related processes affecting chondrocyte
differentiation. Aplasia is also associated with syndromes such as
Goldenhar, hemifacial microsomia, Treacher Collins syndrome, Proteus
syndrome, Morquio syndrome and auriculocondylar syndrome, Agenesis
is associated with external ear, auditory canal and middle and inner ear
anomalies (12).
3.7.18. Hypoplasia.
Incomplete development of the mandibular condyle, which may be
secondary to trauma or congenital anomalies, results in facial asymmetry
and micrognathia (1,2,12).
3.7.19. Hyperplasia.
Exaggerated development of the mandibular condyle, with a non-
neoplastic increase in cells. It usually presents unilaterally, exposing facial
asymmetry. It may be idiopathic or associated with endocrine disorders.
The condyle may be normal or elongated (1,2,12).
3.7.20. Myalgia
Pain of muscular origin, in masticatory muscles upon palpation or
oral opening, which is affected by movement (2,12).
3.7.21. Local myalgia
Pain of muscular origin in the masseter and temporalis on
palpation with localization of pain at the palpation site during myofascial
examination (2,12).
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
18-31
3.7.22. Myofascial pain
Pain of muscular origin that extends beyond the site of palpation,
but with the limit of the muscle when examined (2,12).
3.7.23. Referred myofascial pain
Pain of muscular origin with reference to pain beyond the limit of
the muscle when palpated during examination (2,12).
3.7.24. Tendinitis
Pain of tendon origin affected by jaw movement and function.
Replication of this pain occurs with masticatory tendon provocation tests
(2,12).
3.7.25. Myositis
Pain of muscular origin with clinical characteristics of inammation
and infection (2,12).
3.7.26. Spasm.
Sudden, involuntary, reversible tonic contraction of a muscle that
can cause severe pain (2,12).
3.7.27. Contracture
Shortening of a muscle due to brosis of tendons, ligaments, or
muscle bers, associated with a history of radiation therapy, trauma, or
infection. It is frequently observed in the masseter muscle (2,12).
3.7.28. Hypertrophy
Enlargement of one or more muscles that is generally not associated
with pain and may be secondary to chronic muscle tension, genetic
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
19-31
cause, diagnosis is based on clinical evaluation considering craniofacial
morphology and ethnicity (14).
3.7.29. Orofacial dyskinesia
Involuntary movement that may involve the face, lips, tongue, jaw,
generally in psychotic patients with prolonged treatment of antipsychotics
of the phenothiazine and butyrophenone group (14).
3.7.30. Oromandibular dystonia.
Characterized by strong contractions of the face, lips, jaw and
tongue that cause difculty in opening and closing the mouth, affects
chewing and speech, associated with neurological disorders or exposure
to medications, can affect the muscles of the neck, eyelids, larynx (2,14).
3.7.31. Fibromyalgia.
Disorder characterized by generalized musculoskeletal pain,
accompanied by fatigue, sleep, memory, mood (2,14).
3.7.32. Headache attributed to temporomandibular disorders.
Temporomandibular disorders and headache are closely related
to pathologies, primary headaches such as migraines, episodic tension
or chronic daily pain are common in patients with symptoms of
temporomandibular disorders, it occurs with provocation tests of the
masticatory system (2,14).
3.7.33. Coronoid hyperplasia.
Progressive lengthening of the coronoid process that prevents
mandibular opening when it is obstructed by the zygomatic process (2,14).
Recognizing the causes of pain and dysfunction associated with
temporomandibular disorders is important for guiding treatment
decisions. Systemic considerations may be associated with the etiology
of temporomandibular disorders; these are not commonly considered by
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
20-31
clinicians but can be assessed by most specialists. Relevant information
from the patient at the time of history-taking is also limited, and it is
considered irrelevant to not mention them unless specically requested
(4).
The most important part of diagnosing temporomandibular
disorders is differentiating common diseases from clinically signicant
but unusual conditions, as well as conditions that are more serious
and require urgent attention. This is the case with neoplasms, such as
chondrosarcoma of the temporomandibular joint, a malignant lesion
that may initially share signs and symptoms with some of the common
diagnoses of temporomandibular disorders, such as pain in the
preauricular region and limited mouth opening. Another example that
requires urgent attention is temporal arteritis, which is an inammatory
condition of the temporal vessels with some symptoms similar to those
of temporomandibular disorders, such as headache, pain in the temporal
region, and limited mouth opening. However, temporal arteritis is a
medical emergency that can cause permanent blindness if not treated
promptly (14). Some of the differential diagnoses for orofacial pain that
can mimic temporomandibular disorders are mentioned below in Table
3.
Table 3. Differential diagnoses of temporomandibular joint disorders
Neuropathic pain Trigeminal neuralgia
Glossopharyngeal neuralgia
Postherpetic neuralgia
Traumatic neuralgia
Burning mouth syndrome
Burning mouth syndrome
Atypical odontalgia
Atypical facial pain
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
21-31
Odontogenic pain Dental caries
Periodontal disease
Dental abscess
Dental sensitivity
Cracked tooth syndrome
Pericoronitis
Intracranial pain Tumors
Aneurysms
Bleeding
Infection
Pain attributed to adjacent structures Ear
Nose
Throat
Eyes
Paranasal sinuses
Salivary glands
Lymph nodes
Cervical region
Headaches not attributed to
temporomandibular disorders
Migraine
Cluster headaches
Tension headaches
Temporal arteritis
Referred pain
Psychogenic pain
Source: Prepared from Elledge (14)
3.8. Normal posture
When conceptualizing posture, it cannot be seen as a static action.
According to Andrade, in 2016, a normal posture is “one where a minimum
of energy expenditure is required. The joints receive a minimum load and
the muscular kinematic chains remain aligned” (15). During the process
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
22-31
of species evolution, the human species has differentiated itself by the
acquisition of new brain structures, with greater cortical representations
due to the functions of its hands in gripping and activities they perform
together. Therefore, it had to adopt the bipedal position, giving rise to
the intervention of gravity, generating structural changes, adapting and
obtaining the human posture. Signicant changes are observed in the
physiological curvatures of the spine, such as: kyphosis and lordosis (15).
To maintain a static position requires certain elements such as
muscular reexes that maintain the joints of the body and dynamic posture
other elements are found. The physiological posture in a static position
is acquired through muscular reexes that x the joints of the human
body, while in a dynamic process there are several factors that provide an
adequate posture, such as proprioceptive receptors, exteroceptives that
include vision, hearing, touch and the central nervous system (16).
To adapt to posture, there are the following models: Biomechanical,
Psychosomatic and Neurophysiological or cybernetic. The
neurophysiological theory is the most obvious, since it implies that posture
needs information received from various input and output receptor
systems such as: vestibular, oculomotor, pedal input and the stomagnatic
apparatus, which through the central nervous system achieves correction
of posture, balance and tone (16).
The correct posture can be evaluated in a simple and effective way
by examining the plumb line, which is just a rope with a plumb line at the
end to keep it stable, which should reach the base of the feet, this being
the reference point, to do this the plumb line is placed suspended on the
patient and viewed from the back, where the feet are parallel in relation
to the rope and laterally the plumb line should go in front of the lateral
malleolus (17).
According to Kendall et al (17), in the correct posture they can be
observed with the following parameters:
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
23-31
3.8.1. Side view:
- Neutral head, without inclinations,
- Posterior to the coronal suture
- External auditory canal
- Odontoid process of the axis
- The spine must maintain its physiological curvatures,
- Flat scapula in relation to the upper back
- Sacral promontory
- The hip and knee joint must be in extension,
- The ankle joint should be at 90 degrees.
3.8.2. Rear view:
- Head aligned, neutral position
- Midline of the head
- The spinous processes of the spine must be aligned
- Shoulders should be aligned, neither too depressed nor too
raised.
- The shoulder blades should be equidistant from each other,
8 cm apart.
- Lower limbs parallel as well as the feet, without deviations.
3.8.3. Previous view:
- Head aligned in neutral position
- Facial symmetry
- Straight shoulders in relation to each other
- Parallel knees
- Feet on the oor and parallel.
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
24-31
Correct posture is inuenced by antigravity muscular forces and
gravity, therefore, the force of gravity that inuences the body must be
balanced by the muscles that have the function of opposing this force and
maintaining balance. Each individual will have unique characteristics,
dened by muscle tone and trophism, the condition of ligaments, and
bone surfaces (18).
3.8.4. Normal curves of the spine
There are four normal or physiological curvatures in the spine: at the
cervical region, a convex curve pointing forward is observed; in the dorsal
region, a convex curve pointing backward; and in the lumbar region, this
curve is convex forward. When the lumbar spine is in a normal position, it
corresponds to a neutral spine (17).
3.8.5. Abnormal posture
Considering the normal curves of the spine, there may be abnormal
curves that cause incorrect posture. According to Kendall (17), the
following stand out:
3.8.5.1. Kyphotic posture , observed from the sagittal plane we will
nd: head directed forward, with the cervical spine hyperextended,
abducted scapulae, dorsal spine with increased kyphosis, lumbar
region with hyperextension, forward tilt of the pelvis and hip in
exion, at the level of knees they are hyperextended and ankles in
plantar exion.
3.8.5.2. Lordotic posture , observed from a sagittal plane: the head
is in a neutral position, the cervical and dorsal spine are normal,
however, in the lumbar spine there is hyperlordosis, that is, it is
hyperextended, the pelvis is observed with anterior inclination,
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
25-31
knees in slight hyperextension and the ankle in slight plantar
exion.
3.8.5.3. Flattened posture, examined in a sagittal plane, we can
observe: that the head is forward, cervical spine in extension,
upper dorsal spine in hyperexion and the lower spine straight,
the lumbar curve is rectied, in posterior inclination we can see
the pelvis, hips and knees in extension and the ankles in slight
plantar exion.
Another anomaly seen from the coronal plane, from the back are
the deviations or lateralized postures of the spine that could be muscular
alterations, which lead to the column convexity of this, leading the hip and
its analogous structure to change its normality; There are also alterations
where changes are observed at the level of shoulders where the head can
be aligned, but what corresponds to the shoulder joint from the scapulas
are elevated or rotated. Alterations in postures are observed, the patterns
related to the predominance of the use of a limb, in the case of a person
who uses his right hand, it can be noticed that the right shoulder is lower
than the left, the pelvis is deviated to the right and the right hip is higher
than the left, with a slight deviation of the spine, this predominance can
occur from a very young age in the individual (17).
Likewise, the curvatures observed from the frontal plane that are
lateralized are abnormal (17), this very common dysfunction that alters
the anatomy of the spine is scoliosis, which is where the spine presents
lateral displacements where the vertebrae are rotated, whose diagnosis is
in the coronal plane (16).
3.9. Relationship between craniocervical dysfunction and
temporomandibular disorders
Due to its joint relationships, the posture of the head inuences the
position of the cervical spine, and an alteration in this can cause occlusion
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
26-31
problems. Considering that the rst cervical vertebra (atlas) joins the
head through the articular condyles of the occipital, in addition to a large
number of muscular insertions that connect between both structures.
When the head is in a straight position, the jaw is at rest and there is
between 2 and 4 mm of disocclusion. When there is an alteration in the
occlusion, it will directly affect the Temporomandibular Joint (TMJ) (19).
Craniocervical dysfunction (CHD) is an anomaly in which the
head is positioned forward with respect to the axial axis of the body. It is
accompanied by symptoms such as cervical pain due to the excessive force
exerted by the cervical muscles in their effort to maintain the balance of
the head, causing limitation of movements and postural changes (20). CHD
can arise from bad posture habits such as excessive use of mobile devices,
mouth breathing, in the latter case, when there is mouth breathing the jaw
descends and causes a decrease in the tension of the suprahyoid muscles,
causing the hyoid to be positioned more backward and downward (21).
Some of the clinical characteristics presented by patients with DCC
are: a reduction of the suboccipital, posterior cervical, upper trapezius and
splenius muscles; hyperextension of the cervical spine, forward shoulders,
loss of control of the shoulder blade and alterations in the head and neck
muscles (21).
Due to the anatomical relationship of the structures of the
craniocervical-mandibular system, in most cases patients with CCD
also present temporomandibular disorders (TMD). Bautista et al. (20)
evaluated 87 participants with TMD, resulting in 69% presenting CCD.
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
27-31
TMD has a multifactorial etiology. A relevant factor is that the
function of the masticatory muscles inuences the transverse growth of
the craniofacial skeleton in the areas where they exert their direct action,
as well as in areas of the arch where the molars are erupting (22).
On the other hand, if there is a physiological curvature of the cervical
spine, it will be rectied or inverted, due to tension in the cervical fascia
that is xed to the hyoid bone, which causes a posterior traction of the
latter. The aforementioned results in a lowering of the normal position of
the tongue and jaw (19).
4. Conclusions
The temporomandibular joint is a bilateral synovial joint between
the mandibular condyle and the mandibular fossa of the temporal bone,
its complex anatomy is characterized by highly incongruent skeletal
surfaces which are therefore separated by a brocartilaginous disc into
two independent chambers: the superior temporodiscal space and the
inferior condylar disc space respectively.
The position of the head inuences the position of the cervical
spine, and any alteration in this position can cause occlusion problems.
Abnormal cervical postures include: kyphotic posture, lordotic posture,
and attened posture.
Craniocervical dysfunction (CHD) is an anomaly in which the head
is positioned forward with respect to the axial axis of the body.
Due to the anatomical relationship of the structures of the cranio-
cervical-mandibular system , in most cases patients with DCC also present
temporomandibular disorders.
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
28-31
5. Contribution of the authors
MDOS : Introduction, development and nal review of the article
KLCG : development and nal revision of the article
AMUV : development and nal review of the article
LESP : methodology, development and nal review of the article.
MGCR : development and nal review of the article.
6. References
1. Sang, S., Ameli, N., Almeida, F.T., & Friesen, R. (2024). Association
between clinical symptoms and MRI image ndings in symptomatic
temporomandibular joint (TMJ) disease: A systematic review.
Journal of Cranio-Maxillofacial Surgery . 53(7):835-42. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jcms.2024.04.006
2. Connelly, ST, Tartaglia, GM, & Silva, RG (2019). Contemporary
Management of Temporomandibular Disorders. Springer Nature
Switzerland AG.
3. Pope, T., Bloem, H., Beltran, J., Morrison, W., Wilson, D. (2023).
Musculoskeletal Imaging. Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
4. Blakley, B.W., & Blakley, J.E. (2023). Functional Illness of the Head
and Neck. Springer Nature Switzerland AG
5. Restrepo, C.C., Quintero, Y., Tamayo, M., & Tamayo, V. (2008). Effect
of craniocervical position on physiological oral functions. CES
Odontología, 21(1), 71–75. https://revistas.ces.edu.co/index.php/
odontologia/article/view/55/45
6. Vargas, M. (2012). Anatomy and physical examination of
the cervical and thoracic spine. Costa Rican Legal Medicine ,
29(2), 77–92. https://www.scielo.sa.cr/scielo.php?script=sci_
arttext&pid=S1409-00152012000200009
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
29-31
7. Sgarbi, T. (2018). Craniocervical junction – normal anatomy and
correlation with images. Argentine Journal of Radiology , 82(4), 161–
167 . https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0038-1656541
8. A. Guilar et al. (2024). Imaging resources for the diagnosis
and monitoring of alterations in patients with craniocervical-
mandibular dysfunction. Imagenol Dentomaxillofacial Report,
3(1): e2024030102-e2024030102. . https://doi.org/10.60094/
RID.20240301-32
9. Ramírez, M., Rodulfo, E., Urgilés, C., Herrera, K., Ludizaca, D. (2021).
Association between craniocervical posture and malocclusions.
KIRU Journal , 18(1), 55-64. https://doi.org/10.24265/kiru.2021.
v18n1.08
10. García, A. (2020). Physical-Biomechanical Model of the Skull and
Cervical Spine Suitable for the Study of Muscle Movements and
Forces. Thesis, Polytechnic University of Madrid. Retrieved from
https://oa.upm.es/66087/1/TFG_ALEJANDRO_DE_SANTIAGO_
GARCIA_VALDECASAS.pdf
11. León, Y., Cabrera, M., Guiracocha, E. (2024). Relationship between
cervical vertebrae position and class II malocclusion. Literature
review. Anatomía Digital , 7(1.3), 112-131. https://doi.org/10.33262/
anatomiadigital.v7i1.3.3008
12. Van den Wyngaert,T. (2023). Clinical Atlas of Bone SPECT/CT.
Springer Nature Switzerland.
13. Dimitroulis, G. (2024). The rationale for temporomandibular joint
surgery: A review based on a TMJ surgical classication. Journal of
Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery , Medicine, and Pathology, 36(4), 433-
437. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajoms.2023.10.012
14. Elledge, R. (2024). Classications for the temporomandibular
joint (TMJ): A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Cranio-
Maxillo-Facial Surgery , 52:890–894. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jcms.2024.04.010
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
30-31
15. Andrade, G. (2016). Human posture and its re-education. Cuban
Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation; 8(2):231-240.
https://www.medigraphic.com/pdfs/revcubmedsreah/cfr-2016/
cfr162h.pdf
16. Pesantes, J., (2021). Association between craniocervical posture and
temporomandibular disorders. A literature review. Thesis. Catholic
University. https://dspace.ucacue.edu.ec/handle/ucacue/11286
17. Kendall, FP, Mac Creary, EK, & Provance, PG (2007). Muscles:
Functional testing, posture, and pain. Marbán.
18. Oliveira, C., Navarro, R., Ruiz, JA, Brito, E. (2007).
Biomechanics of the spine. https://accedacris.ulpgc.es/
bitstream/10553/5983/1/0514198_00012_0005.pdf
19. Limaylla, R. (2018). Temporomandibular disorders and
postural alterations of the cervical spine. San Marcos Dentistry ,
11(2): 66-69. https://doi.org/10.15381/os.v11i2.3027
20. Bautista, Aida, F., F. Sánchez, F. Pérez, F. Ambrosio, E.
(2022). Association between craniocervical dysfunction and
temporomandibular disorders in young adults. Revista Estomatológica
Herediana , 32(2), 129–135. https://dx.doi.org/10.20453/reh.
v32i2.4208
21. Tomás J, Castillo C, Villarroel G, Giner A & Felipe N. (2022) Effect of
forward head syndrome on the development of temporomandibular
disorders. Rev Cient Odontol (Lima) , 10(4): e133. https://doi.org/
10.21142/2523-2754-1004-2022-133
22. Villalón P, Frugone R, Palomino H. (2004). Some Cranio-Cervical
Radiographic Measurements According to Ricketts Biotype. Dental
Journal of Chile . ; 95(3): 11-17. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/
articulo?codigo=9384483
Revista multidisciplinaria
investigación Contemporánea ISSN-e: 2960-8015Vol. 3 -No. 207 - 2025
Temporomandibular joint disorders and their relationship with
craniocervical postures
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a89
31-31
Copyright (c) 2025 Mishel Denisse Orlando Santana, Karol Leonor
Chávez González, Alicia Margoth Unda Vernelle, Luis Eduardo Santaella
Palma, Mildreth Gregoria Cercado Rosado.
This text is protected by a Creative Commons 4.0 license.
You are free to Share — copy and redistribute the material in any
medium or format — and Adapt the document — remix, transform, and
build upon the material — for any purpose, even commercially, provided
that you meet the following condition:
Attribution: You must give appropriate credit to the original work,
provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes have been made. You
may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests that
you are endorsed by or afliated with the licensor.
License summary — Full text of the license
Revista multidisciplinaria
Investigación Contemporánea 07 - 2025 Vol. 3 - No. 2 ISSN-e: 2960-8015
DOI: https://doi.org/10.58995/redlic.rmic.v3.n2.a90
Leucemia de células dendríticas plasmocitoides
- estudio y diagnóstico de un caso 49 -49
Copyright (c) 2025 Faicán Rocano Pedro Fernando, Dután Pérez Ibelice Salomé,
González González Camila Raquel, Matute Aguiar Joselyn Nayeli, Rodríguez Ver-
dugo Alejandra Valentina.
Este texto está protegido por una licencia Creative Commons 4.0.
Usted es libre para Compartir —copiar y redistribuir el material en cualquier medio
o formato — y Adaptar el documento —remezclar, transformar y crear a partir del
material— para cualquier propósito, incluso para nes comerciales, siempre que
cumpla la condición de:
Atribución: Usted debe dar crédito a la obra original de manera adecuada, propor-
cionar un enlace a la licencia, e indicar si se han realizado cambios. Puede hacerlo
en cualquier forma razonable, pero no de forma tal que sugiera que tiene el apoyo
del licenciante o lo recibe por el uso que hace de la obra.
Resumen de licencia - Texto completo de la licencia